Explore Japan:

Role in War, 1914-1918

Though Japan did not play as direct a role in the First World War as other countries, they did join rather quickly, declaring war the month after it began (notably, before other major players such as the Ottoman Empire and Italy). Germany had several overseas colonies in China and on various islands in the Pacific Ocean since the end of the 1800s. Japan, with British permission, captured these territories very quickly, and by November of 1914 Germany had lost its influence in the Pacific. This was the first time naval-based aerial assaults were used in history, with aircraft taking off from the water. Throughout the war, Japan offered integral support for the allies in transport, blockade duties, convoy protection, and anti-submarine warfare in the Pacific and the Mediterranean.[1] In August of 1918, Japanese soldiers aided in the Siberian intervention to stabilize the Russian far east and aid in evacuating Czech soldiers. Aside from strategic aid, Japan had no intention or desire to send troops to the western front but did send military observers to learn from the conflict and provided weapons to under supplied Russia.

Meiji Period, 1863-1912

The Meiji period of Japanese history preceded its involvement in the war and was responsible for the country’s participation in the conflict. The new regime headed by Emperor Meiji gradually internationalized Japan after the country’s national seclusion (1639-1854). During this time, Japan saw rapid modernization thanks in large part to its now open borders. Using European models in the construction of its new government, technology, and economy, Japan sought to break from the past and attempt to put itself up with the rest of the modernized world.[2] Thanks to the fact that western powers were more focused on dealing with their own wars and exploiting China, Japan had an advantageous environment to grow. Many Japanese were sent abroad to study the west, and western experts were paid to aid in the transformation. They borrowed the setup of a constitution from Germany, army from Prussia, navy from Great Britain, and the banking system from the United States.[3] This set Japan up as a rising power in the eastern world.

       In 1894, Japan launched a military campaign against China over territory in Korea known as the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), where they captured Taiwan and an advantageous position in Korea.[4] In 1900, Japan was part of the eight-nation alliance that helped put down the Boxer Rebellion in China, marking the first major conflict were it had allied with other western powers. In 1902, it entered the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, a defensive pact with Great Britain[5]. This after Britain had acknowledged its growing strength.

Through the beginning of the 20th century, relations between the Japanese royal house and the British royal house strengthened, in general.[6] In 1904, Japan entered a war with Russia, the Russo-Japanese war (1904-05). The war was over contested territory in Manchuria between the two nations, and resulted in an overwhelming victory by the Japanese. By 1905, Japan had gained the rights to Manchuria and laid the ground to annex Korea. Aspects of this war mirrored the kind of warfare that would be common in the First World War: trenches, machine guns, barbed wire, etc.[7] This conflict showed the world the power of Japan. They were the first eastern nation in modern history to defeat a European power, establishing it as a powerful military force in the east and gaining global recognition. In 1910, Japan officially annexed Korea. Here, in Japan’s rapid modernization and beginning of its empire, the groundwork was laid for its position during the First World War and the events after.

Taisho Period (1912-1926)

The death of Emperor Meiji in 1926 signaled the end of the Meiji Period and the beginning of what would be a transformative era for Japan from up and coming power to a major player and potential threat to the rest of the world. Emperor Taisho (1912-1926) took power just a couple of years before the outbreak of World War One. Though reluctant at first to join the war, Japan would benefit greatly from its conquest of German territory in the East with Britain’s go-ahead. Due to the defensive nature of the Anglo-Japanese pact, Japan was not required to help but saw a useful opportunity when Great Britain asked for assistance, joining the war on August 23rd of 1914. Germany initially tried to ally itself with Japan, but Japan refused, despite past relations between the countries. German territories in Asia were generally lightly guarded and more or less easy pickings for the Japanese, who quickly took control of the occupied Qingdao, Kiautschou Bay, and German Micronesia, ending German control and providing some early victories in the war.[8] Japan then began to expand its area of operations. The territory in Qingdao gave the Japanese a port city, a naval base, railroad access, and economic influence in the Shandong region of China where it was located. In 1915, a series of treaties known as the 21 Demands were negotiated with China to give Japan more political, military, and economic rights in the area, as well as expanding previously captured territory in China. This enlarged the growing empire, basically extending what had been done in the Sino-Japanese war.[9] Japanese demands to China were extensive and ignored by western powers due to the war.

By 1915, Japan had become the predominant Asian/Pacific power, both militarily and economically. This growing empire had a dramatic impact on the Japanese homeland as well. While not as intense as the changes undergone during the Meiji Restoration, this period still saw a continued significant modernization effort. [10] The population of Japan increased, and the country became less agrarian and more urbanized and industrial. Print media, newspapers, telegraphs, and radios all became popular ways of communication and spreading the news. Education expanded, with more people going to school than at any point in the country’s history, including an increasing number of girls. The GDP had almost tripled from what it was in the late 1800s, while manufacturing had increased by around 6 times what it had used to be.[11] Japan also provided material support for the entente in weapons, raw materials, as well as economic support. This prosperous economic period would continue for Japan into the 1920s[12] Due to the change in demographics and the growing economy, Japan saw a rise in the power of political parties as well.

As the war concluded, the nations of the world met in Paris to discuss the post-war world. During the Conference, Japan was included at the table as one of the Big Five countries along with Great Britain, France, The United States, and Italy. This was Japan’s first time taking a role in the global stage of international politics, though they did not participate as much as other countries. They did, however, solidify their post-war gains and themselves as a world power.[13] Japan’s main goals at the conference were to get full control over every territory they captured from the Germans in China and the Pacific Islands and get a racial equality cause put into the new League of Nations charter.[14] Japan had hoped their support in the war would persuade the allies to give them what they wanted. The Pacific islands, such as the Marshals and the Carolines, along with thousands of small atolls, were brought up early at the conference. During the war, Britain, along with France, Italy, and Russian, had acknowledged Japan’s claim for the islands, thanks in part to Japanese naval support. During the conference, Great Britain reinforced the fact that they would support Japanese claims.[15]  The United States, however, had made no such agreement with Japan, and the idea conflicted with President Wilson’s self-determination ideas. In his mind, the League would have taken ownership of all territories. The territory claim represented more of the backroom politics that the Conference and the League of Nations was trying to get away from. China also wanted their territory back. Japan had the railroads and coal mines in the region they wanted to keep, urging that this was not an issue for western powers to interfere with.[16] This issue threatened the League of Nations, as Japanese delegates would not agree to join unless the Sino-Japanese treaty of 1915 (the 21 Demands) as well as agreements with made with the other European nations unless the captured territories were honored. Wilson, along with a few other European leaders, feared that if Japan was not part of the League, then they would have uncontested influence in the east, and could prove one day to be a potential enemy. After much debate and delay over the controversial issue, the decision to leave it in the hands of the Japanese in the form of a “C” mandate was made. This put the captured land under territorial control of the Japanese, but the Japanese would have still reported to the League on how they were running the territory. The League of Nations made a promise to the Chinese that they would help them in the case of unfair ruling or aggression from Japan, keeping alive Wilson’s faith in the League keeping international peace. This agreement essentially left any problems that may arise to be handled at a later date by a different group.  

Unfortunately for Japan, they did not have as much luck with their Racial Equality clause. Early at the conference when discussing President Wilson’ s League of Nations, Japan proposed a Racial Equality Clause. As a new world power, Japan wanted its citizens to be respected even though they were Asian. Racism was rampant in the early 1900s, and Japan was concerned that they would not be taken as seriously as a part of the League of Nations, or as a superpower in general. It is important to note that Japan did not actually believe in the equality of all races, as they saw themselves superior to the Chinese and Koreans. It was more a move to ensure its equal treatment on the global stage when collaborating with Europeans.[17]  However, this clause was not received well by two of the more powerful nations at the conference: Great Britain and the USA. Great Britain still had colonial holdings at this time. Accepting racial equality would cause a lot of issues throughout the empire in those colonial holdings, such as in India. The United States was still heavily segregated at this time, so it was also not about to say that all races are equal.[18] President Wilson himself was from the southern conservative states. Wilson believed that the league was founded on national equality, and there was no need to go further than that. On the day of voting, the Equality Clause actually had majority support at the Peace Conference, notably from France, Italy, and China. France had believed that their culture had always been a civilizing and accepting one, Italy claimed to stand for general human rights, and China no doubt wanted to ensure that it would be treated fairly in the post-war world. However, Wilson claimed that due to the problems raised by the larger nations, it could not be passed. Despite the clause not passing, the conference overall went well for Japan as they got almost everything they had wanted.[19] They got all of the territories they hoped for, and they had recognition as a powerful nation. The denial of the Racial Equality Clause, however, led to some embarrassment for the Japanese delegates.[20] Some Japanese statesmen and military leaders saw this rejection as a sign that Japan needed to change course, away from the League, and as a distinct power from western nations. It was feared the challenges arising for Japan at the conference would interfere with Japanese expansion.  

        The 1920s saw a period of a new liberal internationalist world order. Economies were booming, the largest war to date had recently ended, and for a time, an attempt was being made to stop future ones. In 1920, Japan was one of four nations in the League of Nations Council along with the United Kingdom, France, and Italy. Japan was now firmly on a similar level with the other major powers and a definitive world power. Japan happily participated in many of the League's dealings and even hosted some of its events. They did so for a similar reason as participating in the Paris Peace Conference, to confirm their status and to see the empire stand with world powers and attempt to keep the peace.[21] Japan also took place in the Washington Conference in 1922. Initially after World War One many nations raced to build up their navies in a worldwide arms race. However in the post war era it was generally agreed upon that such an expansion of power would not be conductive towards peace This conference saw multiple nations meet in Washington, D.C., set up by the United States as a kind of’ supplement the League of Nations.[22] Japan, having a favorable position in the League, took part in this. Multiple treaties were produced to respect sovereign territory in China and a new multilateral treaty between Japan and Great Britain was developed to replace the old alliance system. Importantly, the global limit of naval powers impacted Japan, showing recognition of its strength from the world. [23] The term “New Japan” was sometimes used to describe the countries new pursuits of peace and international cooperation.

            Showa Period, 1926-1989 (1926 - 1933 described herein)

1926 saw the rise of Emperor Hirohito (1901-1989), posthumously known as Emperor Showa. While the 1920s were generally a period of growth and progress on an international scale, the 1930s would be seen as the last vestige of the spirit of global cooperation from Japan, as a variety of factors pushed the country into discarding the internationalism at the time and adopt a more fascist and outwardly imperialistic system. However, the spirit of Wilsonian internationalism did not end overnight. Japan was still firmly involved with the western camp in the begging of the decade. In 1930, for example, another disarmament meeting was was held, the London Naval Conference. This conference served to extend and edit the treaties set up at the Washington naval conference, further limiting naval power across major nations.[24] Japan took part in this conference and agreed to continue to lessen its naval fleet.

Generally, these movements and treaties in Japan were accepted by the populace and politicians. Arms reduction was the new way for Japan to cement itself within the western world hierarchy, just as its new democratic government had been. Japan had gotten to this point partially because of its focus on arms production, however the country did not have the resources to keep up with other larger nations such as the United States and Great Britain. As disarmament was becoming the new trend of the modernized world, participating would benefit Japan just as well in preserving Japans national strength as military might would. The hope of early Showa era politicians was that the focus and money Japan had put to the military in the past could be used to greater effect in building schools or the country’s infrastructure. Though many in the military generally disagreed, the cuts were still made.

The 1930s is known as the time period where Japan began to abandon “New Japan” ideals, and adopt the its World Was ll mindset. However, it was not a sudden transition, and the institutions set up within Japan in the early 20th century would not fall quite as easily as believed. Japan entered the thirties with a generally well routed mindset of liberal internationalism and had institutions for both foreign and domestic policy set up that reflected such ideals. [25] The more radical in Japan saw the new liberal international order as a failure and began to push separation. However it took an economic depression, a rise in nationalist ideals, a few political assassinations, and a handful of coups to begin to change such ideals, culminating in the Manchuria incident.

What seemingly solidified the transition from Japan’s liberal, multiculturalism to fascism was the military’s expanse into Asia. The Japanese military, on its own authority, seized control of Manchuria in 1931 and created a puppet state after claiming that Chinese nationalists had damaged a railway, which the Japanese had done as a pretext to invade. Members of the League of Nations were not allowed to initiate hostile takeovers such as this one. When the League spoke up against Japan’s actions in China, Japan decided to leave the League of Nations in 1933. [26] From there, the country became more associated with radical Germany and Italy. The Emperor, and by extension the military, had most of the control over the Japanese government. Japan had become what many European nations feared, a powerful nation in the pacific that could now contest their power.

Conclusion

The First World War and the Peace Conference had a remarkable effect on Japan. The war and the Conference had actively and rapidly increased this process. Japan quickly found itself a global powerhouse, on par with nations like England, France, and the United States. The war allowed Japan to figuratively flex its newly gained power and grab territory for its recently expanding Empire. The peace conference solidified Japan’s position as a world power and secured the territory it had captured. These events also sowed the seeds for Japan’s path later in the twentieth century. The territory gained furthered Japanese influence in the east, making it a dominant contender in the Pacific. The denial of the Racial Equality Clause and the general fear of Japan’s growing power, however, foreshadowed the events to come. As Japan incorporated into the western world in the following decades, both politically and economically, the perceived failure of the new western international order pushed the takeover of militarism and nationalism in the country. The ideals of New Japan and liberal internationalism would not be wide spread in Japan again until after the second world war.

[1] The Great War, “The Ally From The Far East-Japan In World War 1: THE GREAT WAR special” YouTube video, 10:05 https://youtu.be/WG_SzUVNo8I

[2] Charles Emmerson, 1913: In Search of the World before the Great War (New York, NY: Public Affairs, 2014), 421

[3] Margaret Macmillan, Peacemakers: Six Months That Changed the World. (London, England: John Murray, 2001), 318.

[4] Bill Sewell, "Reconsidering the Modern in Japanese History: Modernity in the Service of the Prewar Japanese Empire," Japan Review, no. 16 (2004): 217

[5] First World War.com - Primary Documents - Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 30 January 1902. https://www.firstworldwar.com/source/anglojapanesealliance1902.htm.

[6] National WW1 Museum and Memorial “WW1, Japan and the Advent of and Asian/Pacific World, Frederick Dickinson” YouTube video, https://youtu.be/A3oSaG0WiD8

[7] Koda Yoji, "The Russo-Japanese war: Primary Causes of Japanese Success," Naval War College Review 58, no. 2 (2005): 10-44.

[8] National WW1 Museum and Memorial “WW1, Japan and the Advent of and Asian/Pacific World, Frederick Dickinson” YouTube video, https://youtu.be/A3oSaG0WiD8

 [9] First World War.com - Primary Documents - '21 Demands' Made by Japan to China, 18 January 1915. https://www.firstworldwar.com/source/21demands.htm.

[10] Frederick R. Dickinson, World War I and the Triumph of a New Japan, 1919-1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 58

[11] Macmillan, 319

[12] National WW1 Museum and Memorial “WW1, Japan and the Advent of and Asian/Pacific World, Frederick Dickinson” YouTube video, https://youtu.be/A3oSaG0WiD8

[13] Dickinson, 68-69

[14] Noriko Kawamura, "Wilsonian Idealism and Japanese Claims at the Paris Peace Conference," Pacific Historical Review 66, no. 4 (1997): 503-504

[15] Macmillan, 324

[16] Kawamura, 514-515

[17] Dickinson, 68

[18] Kawamura, 520

[19] National WW1 Museum and Memorial “WW1, Japan and the Advent of and Asian/Pacific World, Frederick Dickinson” YouTube video, https://youtu.be/A3oSaG0WiD8n

[20] Peter Harris, “Why Japan Turned Against the Paris Peace Treaty, and Why It Matters,” The National Interest (The Center for the National Interest, December 26, 2018), https://nationalinterest.org/feature/why-japan-turned-against-paris-peace-treaty-and-why-it-matters-39527).

[21] Dickinson, 71

[22]  Allen Welsh Dules, "The Disarmament Puzzle," Foreign Affairs 9, no. 4 (1931): 605-606

[23] Dickinson, 74

[24] Tony DiGiulian, NavWeaps, n.d., http://www.navweaps.com/index_tech/tech-089_London_Treaty_1930.php)

[25] Dickinson, 190

[26] Thomas W. Burkham, "Japan and the League of Nations: An Asian Power Encounters the “European Club,” World Affairs 158, no. 1 (1995): 54