Explore Ireland:

Role in War 1914-1918

The First World War had been the first major conflict Ireland had seen for over a century. As the war broke out, large numbers of Irish men volunteered, the largest military force the nation had mustered in history. Irishmen fought in the Gallipoli invasion in an attempt to take the Dardanelles from the Central Powers alongside other members of the British Commonwealth (New Zealand and Australia).[1] They also saw action on the western front throughout the war, fighting in the trenches. Most famously, the Irish fought in the disastrous battle of the Somme, where Irish divisions lost massive amounts of their men in the opening day of battle. A total of some 210,000 Irishmen served with the British, with about 35,000 losing their lives.[2] Overall, this toll was more than New Zealand but less than Australia.

Pre-war 1801-1913

England had some form of control of Ireland going back to at least the sixteenth century, where the Irish parliament fell under the control of King Henry the Vlll and his heirs. However, as time went on, nationalistic pride slowly increased in Ireland. In part, this was due to the fact that the majority of Ireland was Catholic, while the majority of Great Britain was Protestant (along with north Ireland). In 1801 under the Act of Union, Ireland became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. This combined the parliament systems of each nation. Ireland kept its administrative structure but functionally was similar to a colony, possessing a viceroy and several government departments that kept it answering to British control.[3]

From 1845 to 1849, a fungus damaged Ireland's potato crop and caused what became known as the great potato famine. This fungus, also called the potato blight, spread all over Europe, but was felt the worst in Ireland. Potatoes were a widespread dietary staple in Europe; they were relatively easy to grow, could be used to feed animals as well as people, and were with a good source of calories and nutrients. The blight made most potato crops inedible, rotting them and leaving the already struggling Ireland starving. In addition, this caused economic collapse as farmers could not sell their crops. Blight infected potato spread disease easily, and a large number of humans and livestock died due to lack of sufficient food or from disease. This was not the first time the crop had failed, but it was the worst time. In response to the famine, Britain was generally reluctant to step in and provide aid and remained relatively unaware to the full extent of the crisis.[4] When they did get themselves involved, such as trying to provide more jobs or trying to introduce more cornmeal into the country, it was all ineffective.  The famine and its effects caused the death of roughly one million Irish citizens, around a ninth of the population. Though the famine eventually passed, the economic effects lasted long afterward. The famine increased the number of Irish emigrants, with a few hundred thousand Irish citizens, usually younger people, leaving per year during the worst parts of the famine. The British mismanagement of the crisis was not soon forgotten by the Irish.

Thanks in part to this tragedy, calls for nationalism grew, and several groups began to push for the idea for some kind of independent Ireland. This trend was concurrent with the 1848 revolutions, where much of Europe was revolting against the monarchical rule and for the creation of Nation-States. In 1858, the Irish Republican Brotherhood was formed. This was one of the early groups of Irishmen that set out to create an independent democratic republic in Ireland. This push for independence was complimented by the revival of old Irish culture known as the Gaelic Revival, spreading across the country at the end of the nineteenth century. This was spearheaded by the Gaelic League, founded in 1893. The Gaelic League helped the rediscovery of traditional Irish language, literature, art, and sport, helping give the Irish people a solid foundation of national identity as well as “de-anglicizing” Ireland, getting rid of English culture.[5] The combination of cultural revival and political independence movements encouraged the notion of separation from the UK through home rule, the establishment of an Irish Parliament, and more power for Ireland to handle its domestic issues. By the end of the nineteenth century, these ideas were slowly gaining traction in the British Parliament as well. However, home rule bills in 1886 and 1893 failed to pass. The first failed in the House of Commons and the second in the House of Lords, voted against by conservative members.[6] Still, the notion of self-rule did not disappear. In 1905 another group came out of the self-rule concept, Sinn Fein. Translating roughly to “we ourselves,” the movement, led by Arthur Griffith (1871-1922), sought a system where an Irish parliament would set up in Dublin, as opposed to the current system of Irish members traveling to London.[7] This system of dual monarchy was similar to the Hapsburg system in the Austro-Hungarian Empire and similar to what had existed in the past in the UK.

In 1911, Parliament pushed an act that removed the Lord's ability to veto legislation, meaning it would now be potentially easier to pass some form of home rule. Taking this opportunity, in 1912, the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), the majority Irish party in Parliament, pushed through a third home rule bill. By 1913, the bill was moving forward in the majority vote in the House of Commons, with the House of Lords not being able to stop it fully. Unfortunately for the IPP, home rule was not universally supported in Ireland. Northern Ireland, known as Ulster, was closer in culture and relation to England than the rest of Ireland. Many of the citizens had more familial ties to the country, there were industrial connections, and this part of Ireland was largely protestant like Great Britain, while the rest of Ireland was catholic.[8] This fact had caused and would continue to cause tension between the groups for decades, as the birth of the British state was associated with Protestantism fending off Catholicism.[9] Since the new home rule bill would be harder to stop in parliament this time around, citizens in Ulster formed the Ulster Covenant, which opposed the rest of Ireland. In 1913 they created a paramilitary organization threatening violence if the bill passed. Nationalists in Ireland responded with the formation of the Irish Volunteers to counter them. It was generally believed that this growing tension was going to result in a civil war in Ireland, a major point of concern for the British.

War and Immediate Aftermath, 1914-1921

In 1914 the Home Rule Bill passed, and Ireland would now move forward with becoming more independent from Great Britain. This only increased possibility of civil war, as Ulster wanted nothing to do with the new system. There was growing uneasiness in the British military in regard to the change, as many of the officers from Ireland were Unionists, and/or came from Irish protestant families. These concerns were reinforced in 1914 when a group of officers resigned their positions at camp Currah rather than enforce home rule, sowing doubt about the military and its allegiances.[10]  Despite reservations from Unionists, the Home Rule Bill was put through later that year. Unfortunately for Ireland, the full realization was put on hold due to the United Kingdom’s involvement with the war. For the moment, the British government was more focused on the fields of France and the deserts of Arabia than it was with its own backyard. This did not impact just the British, as the war distracted many Irish nationals as well, postponing a potential civil war.

On Easter of 1916, the Irish Volunteers that refused to fight in the war rose up against the government. Revolutionary forces took over various parts of the capital, Dublin. From the post office, they declared themselves a republic, reading the Proclamation of the New Irish Republic. Six days after they took control, the British sent in a thousand men, a gunboat, and multiple artillery pieces to end the uprising. The British military eventually retook the city and executed the leaders of the rebellion. During the battle, hundreds of civilians were caught in the crossfire. Though the revolt was limited to Dublin, the executions of the leaders caught the attention of the public throughout Ireland, leading to outrage as the men were now seen as heroic figures. The British declared martial law in the city, capturing thousands of people, a mix of innocents, and Irish Nationalists. When released from prison, many of the Irish Nationalists joined up with Sinn Fein. Sinn Fein had now changed its focus from just having separate parliaments to wanting a full Irish republic in 1917. The disastrous Battle of the Somme in the summer of 1916 further increased Irish unrest. This was the bloodiest battle in British history and saw near 20,000 British soldiers die, 3,500 of whom were Irish. The results of this battle further soured the Irish feelings towards Britain and the war, as thousands were dying for the British but home rule seemed to be becoming a dwindling possibility. The last straw came in 1918. After German spring offensives, the British government called for conscription in Ireland, and though they tried, the IPP could not stop it. This led to protests and strikes across the country, uniting Irish Nationalists and empowering Sinn Fein.[13] When the war ended, home rule was not put through, and the crisis in Ireland continued. Sinn Fein, now the most powerful Irish independence party, refused to take a seat in parliament and in 1919, met in Dublin as their own parliament and declared themselves as the independent Irish Republic.

It was around this time that the Paris Peace Conference was underway. While they were combatants in the war, Irish representatives were not allowed at the conference.[14] A group of Irish nationalists asked American President Woodrow Wilson for support; however, Wilson wanted nothing to do with them. He believed that they should sort out their own issues. For all of Wilson's talk of self-governance and freedom for the smaller nations, he had no solution for the Irish problem. Wilson’s main goal during the conference was the establishment of the League of Nations. He needed support in order to do so, particularly from powerful nations such as the United Kingdom. Interfering with British rule in Ireland could sour relations and ultimately jeopardize the League, so he left the Irish to figure out the situation on their own. In the USA, where support for the Irish had been growing, Irish-Americans condemned Wilson for not doing enough the help them separate from Great Britain and for going against his principles.[15] The US Senate and House of Representatives showed sympathy for the Irish people and urged American delegates at the Peace Conference to allow the Irish question to be heard.[16] A group of Irish-American delegates put together by the congress of Irish societies attempted to be heard at the conference, but to no avail due to David Lloyd George being unavailable. These delegates began to speak about British atrocities against the Irish, rallying support in Ireland along the way. Wilson used their protesting to his advantage, claiming that the conference had been ready to receive them, but these Irish-Americans instead spread their message the wrong way and ruined their chances to be heard at the conference. The Irish, ultimately, got no help from the peace conference, and the lack of attention would lead to another war. Ironic, considering that the formation of this republic was the kind of self-determination those at the conference were supposedly standing for.

Back in Ireland, after independence was declared, so too was the Irish war for Independence. Between 1919 and 1921, Ireland and Britain would fight a grueling war against each other, and with little to no attention being given at the conference, Ireland was forced to fend for itself. Battles took place in the streets and house to house with hit and run tactics and ambushes; there were many civilian casualties. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) faced off against the British army and its police in Ireland, the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC). Despite the size of the military rapidly dropping post WWI, Britain still sent over large amounts of soldiers to Ireland.[17] This force included the Black and Tans and the Auxiliaries, paramilitary forces of WWI veterans. By 1920, the British had once again declared martial law in Ireland, leading to even further distaste for the British. In March of 1920, a fourth home rule measure was introduced, the Government of Ireland Act, which set up Northern Ireland as an autonomous region in the United Kingdom in 1921[18]. The war ended in December of 1921, with the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It gave the majority of Ireland the status of Dominion in the British Empire, meaning they would only answer to the British in terms of foreign and defense policies, everything else was up to them. This was the same status that Canada and Australia had. Many Irish nationalists saw this as a step towards true independence, but many in the IRA disagreed as it did not promise true independence.

Post-war 1922-1934

Very shortly after a war for independence had been won, a shorter and more intense civil war occurred. From 1922 to 1923, the Irish Civil War raged across Ireland, ultimately causing more death than the Irish War for Independence. Many in the IRA, known as Irregulars, did not like that the treaty did not provide the true republic they were hoping for, they saw it as just the trappings of one. The effects of the Great War, as well as the Easter Rising, had a serious impact on the people of Ireland. So many had fought and died in the hopes of an Irish Republic. Living through the largest war in history and struggling for independence, only to not be given what they were hoping for, was too much for many.[19] This war was fought on a more personal level than the previous one, as there were not simply British and Irish shooting at each other. Various gangs, families, and political parties all on varying sides of the independence spectrum fought, creating deep political divides.[20] There was also still tension between the Unionists in Ulster and the Nationalists in the rest of Ireland. Still, the Provincial government and the National Army of the newly independent Ireland were able to gain control quickly.  

Once the back-to-back wars were over, and the general setup for how Ireland was to be run was established, the country could begin to run itself. In 1920, the Government of Ireland act had already established that Ireland would be proportionally representative in order to preserve minority interests.[21] In the early 1920s, the head of state William Cosgrave (1880-1965) helped ensure a proper government was put in place after the years of violence that had recently come to an end. He helped establish a new police force outside of the RIC, created civil services, and a workable tax system designed to help rebuild the country after the war. Ireland was also now allowed to be a part of the League of Nations, joining in 1923 and making an effort to stand up for smaller nations, seeing it as its duty to do so as a smaller nation who had been previously oppressed. Initially, as part of Great Britain, Ireland was expected to effectively serve as an extension to them. However, Irish representatives took the opportunity to distance themselves from Great Britain, often standing up for separate issues. Ireland had fought for Britain in the war and was denied its place at the Paris Peace Conference. The representatives in the League were not going to forget this and simply fall in line with the British. In 1930 it joined the League as its own country, separate from Britain. Ireland was a long-lasting member of the League, gaining international influence and a say in world politics. They remained a committed member until the day the League dissolved. Back home, by 1932, Ireland had a one-party system in the form of the Cosgrave’s pro-treaty party, the Society of the Gaels. Cosgrave wanted to set up a legitimate parliamentary system, where the power would not be completely in control of one party. In the 1932 elections, they lost to the Fianna Fail party, led by De Valera (1882-1975), ushering in a peaceful transition of power.[22] These events established Ireland as a bipartisan, multi-party government.

Under this party’s control, Ireland further separated itself from Great Britain, engaging in a trade war and getting rid of leftover constitutional links. This helped more firmly establish Ireland as its own country. During the 1930s, many nations fell under the umbrella of fascism and fascist leaders. Indeed, with Ireland's troubled history, lingering tensions, and a relatively new government, it would be a breeding ground for such a movement similar to the rest of the post-war world. Ireland did see an increase in power post-WWI that it had not seen before, as the country had a strong potential to grow its air power and navy.[23] However, fascism never fully took hold as it did in other parts of Europe. There was a small uprising between 1933 and 34, where a group colloquially known as the Blue Shirts tried to gain power due to economic struggles from the trade war, but once that subsided, their numbers quickly dropped. Ireland did not have the same serious economic concerns and/or charismatic leaders that other nations in the 30s had. In fact, it had remained largely neutral during the Second World War.

Conclusion

Ireland had had a tumultuous history with Great Britain for hundreds of years. After centuries of war, invasion, and conquest, Ireland seemed to become an equal part of Britain. But, the mishandling of national crises and a rise in nationalism saw the emergence of more Irish citizens wanting some form of an independent state. After a few failed attempts, when it was finally within reach, the great war broke out. Various factions in Ireland took part in the war, hoping to earn favor from Great Britain, but their special interests were more or less ignored. The same goes for when the question of Irish independence was brought up at the Paris Peace Conference. Ireland, like many other nations, fought for a cause, but had its personal motives used as leverage and put on hold. It was the violence of the war and the neglect of conference that helped spur Ireland into its violent period between 1916 and 1923 but also influenced its post-civil war. Ireland became a relatively stable, successful, and independent nation. It strove in the League to serve other nations, as that was what it had needed during the conference. Using its experience, the country was able to keep itself away from fascism, and out of the Second World War.

[1] National Army Museum UK “The Irish Soldiers experience of the first world war”. YouTube https://youtu.be/_1eAQOfYvow

[2] The Great War “The Easter rising-Ireland in World War 1: THE GREAT WAR special” YouTube video, https://youtu.be/DMWP9G6gecc

[3] David Reynolds, The Long Shadow (London: Simon & Schuster, 2014),16

[4] Kevin O'Rourke, "The Economic Impact of the Famine in the Short and Long Run." The American Economic Review 84, no. 2 (1994): 309

[5] Reynolds, 18

[6] Walter James Shepard, "The Government of Ireland (Home Rule) Bill." The American Political Science Review 6, no. 4 (1912): 565-566

[7] Richard Killeen, A Short History of the Irish Revolution: 1912 to 1927 (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 2007), 39

[8] Killeen, 7

[9] Charles Emmerson, 1913: In Search of the World before the Great War (New York, NY: Public Affairs, 2014), 437

[10] Christopher M. Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 2014), 489

[11] J. J O'Connell. "The Vulnerability of Ireland in War." Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review 27, no. 105 (1938): 125

[12] Max Hastings, Catastrophe 1914: Europe Goes to War (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 2014), 112

[13]Denis Donoghue, "Easter 1916," Yeats Annual, no. 21 (2018):49

[14] Darragh Gannon, "January 1919: The Irish Republic, the League of Nations and a New World Order." The Conversation, January 25, 2019.

[15] Margaret Macmillan, Peacemakers: Six Months That Changed the World (London, England: John Murry (Publishers), 2001), 498

[16] Killeen, 94

[17] W. J. Lowe, "Who Were the Black-and-Tans?" History Ireland 12, no. 3 (2004): 47

[18] “Statutes of Northern Ireland,” Government of Ireland Act 1920 (as assented to), http://www.bailii.org/nie/legis/num_act/1920/192000067.html)

[19] Killeen,124

[20]Michael Hayes. "Dáil Eireann and the Irish Civil War." Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review 58, no. 229 (1969): 22.

[21] Reynolds, 32

[22] Reynolds, 76

[23] O'Connell, 130